31 May 2025

From Analytical Education to Creative Training Part 1

Vernon Chalmers Academic, Business and Training Development Journey

SA Navy Training Officer and Studying / Working via Secret ICT Classification

Part 1Part 2

Vernon Chalmers Labour Relations Training SAS Simonsberg Simon's Town Photo Credit: SA Navy : Mental Health and Motivation
Labour Relations Training SAS Simonsberg  Photo Credit: SA Navy

As a young first-year student in Cape Town I made a solemn promise on my way to my first lecture - if ever given the opportunity, I will educate, train and develop others for the rest of my life.” ― Vernon Chalmers

"An active life serves the purpose of giving man the opportunity to realize values in creative work, while a passive life of enjoyment affords him the opportunity to obtain fulfillment in experiencing beauty, art, or nature." Viktor Frankl

Image 1: Vernon Chalmers Training Officer South African Navy
With my students (I’m back row on the left) after my first ever self-designed training course (on Labour Relations). My KPA's included the lecturing of Military Leadership / Military Management / Labour Relations Strategy and Consulting for the SA Navy at the Military Training School, SAS Simonsberg, Simon’s Town and the SA Naval Staff College (for Naval Officer Training) in Muizenberg during the early 1990’s. 

Some of my (personal) biggest achievements were two Chief of the SA Navy Excellence Awards for Labour Relations / Military Management Training (SAS Simonsberg), SADF Joint Senior Staff Officer College Labour Relations Course Selection (as a junior officer) - completed Summa Cum Laude (Pretoria). I was trusted with the autonomy for continuous research / development of Classified Military Management training (for Navy Petty Officers and Warrant Officers Qualifying) curriculums and being selected as one of the youngest members to serve on the Chief of the SA Navy's Steering Committee for Military Management and Leadership Training (and the curriculum development / facilitation of civilian Labour Relations Training to current / future Naval Base Commanding Officers) Naval Officer Staff College (Muizenberg). 

It was an honour to work with some of the Navy's finest senior officers (during some of my assignments) who served as Commanding / Executive Officers on some of our Navy's most prestigious ships and / or shore units. Many retired years later as Rear and Vice Admirals.

Border Duty mention: As part of my initial compulsory (conscript) military service, (SA Navy), I spent three months volunteering with the SA Marine Corps in two operational units in the 'war zone' (SWA / Namibia) deep into the Caprivi Strip, with the second deployment a few kilometers north of the Chobe National Park - where we regularly observed the 'enemy' across the Chobe River, Zambia. It was a personal dedicated (auxiliary) border service, and at times volunteered in assisting some of the Marines with minor psychological challenges - for my border service I received the SADF Pro Patria medal. For me, personally, this period was quite a paradox, as 1000s of young men across the SADF had no choice. Most of them (SA Army) were engaged in physical infantry warfare in Angola during the same time. I still, up to today, have many days assimilating this. Sentinel Projects (by Barry Fowler, Clinical Psychologist, SA Army during the same period) assisted me in a very thoughtful way in reading his online publication with some interesting anecdotes / journals from various SADF members during this challenging period - I starting reading Sentinel Projects since 2020. I also read Barry Fowler's book - Pro Patria 2nd Ed. 'SADF Border Duty 1984 -1988'. Books by Barry Fowler.

Classified Information and Communication Technology Student Employment
As a Human Resource Management and Social Science student I was unexpectedly awarded an international Curry Merit Award / Bursary towards the end of my first year and was subsequently recruited (from my second year) by a covert Information Management and Technology agency involved in Secret and Top Secret national and international projects for the South African Defence Force (SADF). After some intense scrutiny I was granted an official SADF / SA Government Intelligence Secret Clearance and over a three-year period was exposed to some of the best Information Technology (IT) software engineers / computer systems in the country. What was quite ironic (to keep a secret) was the many days I attended lectures in full business attire - under the pretence of working as a part-time sales representative. 

I was prohibited from talking to anyone (via Classified / Secret Non-Disclosure Agreements) about the existence and / or my affiliation to the agency (and / or the SADF) - and I worked there most afternoons, evenings and weekends. During many all-night operations I would shower at the agency in the morning and drive back to campus attending lectures from 08:30. Some afternoons I would drive straight back 'to work' or spend hours researching 'specific criteria' in various university libraries for the agency. One of my (lessor) classified assignments involved the facilitation / strategic implementation guidelines of the SA Labour Relations Act for the agency's management (seeing that they worked in tandem with the SADF and its application of the Military Discipline Code (MDC) Act - for SADF military units). At the time there was little guidance / application of the civilian Labour Relations Act regarding the future of the soon to be formal all-inclusive (mostly unknown) definition of all SADF-involved civilian employees. I was ultimately offered a permanent position in 'Psychometric Analysis - Secret Intelligence Selection and Recruitment', but I turned it down for other opportunities.

Little did I know that a few years later I would become (more than) strategically involved in the consulting / training of civilian labour relations / labour law to SA Navy officers, non-commissioned officers and civilian staff (in the Western Cape Command). The more liberal labour relations policy approach of the SA Navy leadership (during the early 1990's) offered me this unique intervention as an important organisational / personal goal and responsibility (in the context of the country's political ideology at the time). The Navy's leadership trust in my ability to fulfil my self-defined research and curriculum-development objectives across rank and region motivated me even more. At first I was slightly overwhelmed with the academic freedom of guiding so many different levels of stakeholders, but I was well supported by my senior naval officers, military training psychologists and other members who, like me, believed in the shared goals and essence of staff development and motivation.    

From Human Resource Development Education to Personal / Corporate Computing    
My first postgraduate majors included Applied Industrial Psychology, Compensation Management, Human Resource Development and Organisational Behaviour. At the same time (while working at the agency) I developed a stupendous interest in the fast-developing global semiconductor industry with specific reference to the 'brain of the PC' - the Central Processing Unit (CPU). An early personal 'AI' interest I suppose, in terms of executing specific human / logic instructions via the CPU (chip) through programmed purpose; the Arithmetic Logic Unit, Control Unit and the Storage Unit (memory) functionality. I was fascinated by the idea that such a tiny wafer of semiconducting material with an embedded electronic circuit could potentially change the way we apply a broad spectrum of quantitative analysis, electronic communication and general office / personal productivity. With almost a million transistors at the time on each chip and increasing with every new CPU generation (thanks to Gordon Moore of Intel's scientific observation that eventually became Moore's Law - that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles about every two years) - this evolution had a significant impact on the continuous global scientific, engineering, business, socio-economic, technology and digital communication efficiency since the 1960s. 

It was a fascinating time - and this was just about the beginning of the universal technological influence of the microchip, independently invented in 1959 by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce (Noyce together with Gordon Moore founded Intel Corporation in 1968, California, United States). The introduction of the first IBM Personal Computer (PC) in 1981 provided opportunities for business and individuals to acquire cost-effective multi-tasking desktop computers that were simply not available in such small form factor(s) before. Not long after the introduction of the IBM PC the Intel CPU became the microprocessor of choice for most desktop and workstation / server (network) computer data processing around the world. Millions of Intel CPU's were integrated into 'cloned' IBM PC's with seamless compatibility and more cost-effective than most IBM components (i.e. cases, power supply units, motherboards (compatible with various Intel CPU's), DDR memory modules, internal IDE hard drives, graphic / sound cards and other primary input / output peripherals) when the Intel XT 80286 CPU became available in 1982. It subsequently dominated the 'CPU of choice' market as the 'de facto' standard for many business, laboratory, office and classroom desktop computers. Bill Gates and Paul Allen's Microsoft provided the 'disk operating system' (DOS) software and over the years evolved in tandem with Intel to the current 14th Generation Intel (Raptor Lake) CPU's with Microsoft Windows 11 as operating system software (OS) of choice (together with a quite a few open-source Linux OS distributions). I was always aware of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak's development of the Apple Macintosh computer system, but my (historic) fascination remained on the 'Intel Inside' side only.

Higher data transfer rates became an ever-increasing essential requirement for desktop / server information processing and for enabling digital communication / networking between computer systems (not just intra-corporate, but across industries and the fast-developing international private / public digital global landscape). A rapid demand for IT skills, systems, products, services and subsequent growth in electronic commerce redefined (digital) workflows for the continuous increase in (global) corporate competitiveness. Faster, reliable and scalable computing / networking bandwidth pushed semiconductor manufacturing performance requirements for increased individual and corporate efficiency. During the 1990s the revolutionary development of the new 'digital economy' via the Internet accelerated change to strategic / operational analytical decision-making for increased competitive advantages and efficiency. These 'inflection points' benefited SMEs and large multi-national / international corporates alike. Many government agencies across the world started vigorous research and (software) application developments in terms of various regulatory changes, updating international trading standards and defining new cyber security risk protocols. 'Who is spying on who..?' Suddenly, international business / economics became very enticing subjects to study and / or to lecture - right through the retail dot-com implosion during the early 2000s. All very exhilarating indeed for anybody remotely interested in semiconductors, silicon processor (CPU) processing, increased productivity and making lots of money - or losing it after the dot-com crash. 

“A strategic inflection point is a time in the life of business when its fundamentals are about to change. that change can mean an opportunity to rise to new heights. But it may just as likely signal the beginning of the end” ― Andy Grove, Intel

During my studies the agency assisted me in acquiring my first own personal computer - an Intel-based XT 80286 desktop computer (with Olivetti dot matrix printer) and within the next year upgraded to an Intel-based AT 80386 just to upgrade again to the more advanced Intel-based 80486 (as it became available in the local market). After these upgrades I was freely and generously supplied with some of Intel's Europe, Middle-East and Africa (Intel EMEA) market's first assigned high-performance multiprocessing Intel Pentium and Intel Pentium II CPUs after joining Intel Corporation.

One of my prescribed reading resources during my first postgraduate studies during the 1990s was Alvin Toffler's futuristic book, 'Future Shock'. In short, the book was more a pragmatic assertion that the accelerated rate of structural change(s) in global social and technological environments will have a profound psychological impact on most individuals and societies. In our small class of about fifteen students I was one of the only students who made an attempt to read Toffler's head-scratching future 'social science fiction' narrative predictions from cover to cover - one of our final examination case studies was based on various chapters from Future Shock (not included in the paper) and I could not have been happier. In contemporary society many scientists and technologists still acknowledge the literature contributions Toffler has made to international technological revolution, change and development. (Source: Vernon Chalmers Academic, Private and Corporate Information Management Applied Research)

"With the help of technology, teachers will be leaders in the transformation of education around the world." ― Craig Barrett, Intel

Intel CPU and Motherboard Components
Open Socket with Intel CPU on a Motherboard with two open RAM Slots on the Left
 
Applying IT Systems for Enhancing Management / Employee Productivity
I became fascinated by IT Systems to such an extend that I quickly mastered not only to design / integrate purpose-built desktop / workstation computer systems, but also vigorously researched how corporate IT architecture (and the fast-developing Internet) could be applied for improving strategic / management decision-making, organisational productivity, corporate communications and analytical / data management performance objectives. As HTTP protocols and HTML became more universally available I developed a self-designed Intranet for an academic institution in Cape Town - for improving digital communications between the IT department and every PC across their campuses. Working for / and be further trained by Intel Corporation (EMEA / US) engineers and MBA marketing a few years later enabled me to consult large corporations, universities and SME IT Systems development and future 'IT roadmapping'. These strategic interventions created many personal opportunities for lecturing a variety of Information Systems Architecture Design, Software, Social Media, E-Commerce and Internet Marketing modules to various groups of graduate and postgraduate students. However, my most important personal learning interests were, above all, still focused on the cognition, development and applied research in human behaviour / motivation.   

Academic / Private Sector Education, Training and Consulting 
The years between Image 1 and Image 2 was quite a journey. During these years I have had the privilege of lecturing (and designing / facilitating many training courses) at various business schools, universities and private training institutions across South Africa (Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban). I was provided with many opportunities for consulting / lecturing / facilitating subjects such as Strategic Management, Financial Management, Human Resource Management, Training Management, Labour Relations / Law, Industrial Psychology, Self Management, Small Business Management, Entrepreneurship, Organisational Behaviour, Consumer Behaviour / Market Research, Corporate Communications, Business Economics, Macroeconomics, Accountancy, Advertising Management, Project Leadership / Management, Supply-Chain Management, Marketing Management, Change Management, Information Systems Management, Information Systems Architecture /  Design / Integration, Corporate Website Strategy / Design / Implementation / Analytics, E-Commerce Strategy / Application, Internet Marketing Strategy / Application, Social Media Strategy / Application and Quantitative Analytics / Global Consumer Visitation / Market(ing) Behaviour Analysis (where applicable).

Continue to Part 2 >>

Mental Health and Leadership

Leadership Awareness, Research And Resources

Mental Health and Leadership

The greatest leader is not necessarily the one who does the greatest things. He is the one that gets the people to do the greatest things.”― Ronald Reagan

Mental Health and Leadership Research

Mental Health and Leadership
"Mental health and leadership are interconnected in various ways, as effective leadership requires a strong focus on both the well-being of leaders and the individuals they lead. Recognizing and addressing mental health issues within a leadership context is crucial for creating a healthy and productive work environment. Here are some key points to consider:

Self-Awareness: Effective leaders are self-aware and understand their own mental well-being. Leaders who acknowledge their own struggles, stressors, and emotions are better equipped to manage their mental health and make informed decisions.

Role Modeling: Leaders serve as role models for their teams. When leaders prioritize their mental health, it sends a message that well-being is valued within the organization. This encourages team members to also prioritize their mental health.

Reducing Stigma: Leaders can help reduce the stigma surrounding mental health by openly discussing their own challenges and experiences. This can create a more open and supportive culture where employees feel comfortable seeking help when needed.

Effective Communication: Leaders who communicate openly about mental health can foster a culture of transparency and trust. Regular check-ins, one-on-one conversations, and feedback sessions can provide opportunities for employees to discuss their concerns and challenges.

Stress Management: Leadership roles often come with high levels of stress. Effective leaders learn and model healthy stress management techniques, such as time management, delegation, mindfulness, and work-life balance.

Empathy and Support: Leaders who are empathetic and supportive of their team members' mental well-being create a positive work environment. Being understanding and offering support during difficult times can boost morale and overall team performance.

Recognition of Burnout: Burnout is a significant concern, especially for leaders who often take on heavy workloads and responsibilities. Recognizing the signs of burnout in oneself and others is essential to address it promptly and prevent its negative impact.

Adaptability and Flexibility: The ability to adapt to changing circumstances is a valuable leadership trait. Being flexible in accommodating employees' mental health needs, such as remote work options or flexible schedules, can contribute to a healthier work environment.

Conflict Resolution: Effective leaders handle conflicts in a constructive and respectful manner. Addressing conflicts promptly can prevent negative impacts on mental health and team dynamics.

Providing Resources: Leaders should ensure that employees have access to mental health resources, such as counseling services, employee assistance programs, and wellness initiatives. By promoting these resources, leaders show their commitment to supporting mental well-being.

Training and Education: Leaders can benefit from training in recognizing signs of mental health issues and providing appropriate support. This enables them to offer guidance and connect employees with the right resources.

In summary, leadership and mental health are intertwined, and effective leadership involves not only achieving organizational goals but also creating an environment that supports the well-being of all team members. By prioritizing mental health, leaders can contribute to a positive workplace culture, improved team performance, and overall organizational success." (Source: ChatGPT 2023)

A Meta-Analysis of the Relative Contribution of Leadership Styles to Followers’ Mental Health Sage Journals

Expectations of Leaders’ Mental Health NIH

For Leaders: How to Protect Your Mental Health and the Mental Health of Your Team LinkedIn

Health-Oriented Leadership and Mental Health From Supervisor and Employee Perspectives: A Multilevel and Multisource Approach Frontiers in Psychology

Here's why Leaders need to care about Mental Health World Economic Forum

How can leadership normalize the conversation around mental health? Mental Health America

Is the health-awareness of leaders related to the working conditions, engagement, and exhaustion in their teams? A multi-level mediation study BMC

Leaders' Effect On Followers' Mental Health Life Science Leader

Leaders’ Mental Health in times of crisis: work intensification, emotional demands and the moderating role of organizational support and self-efficacy Frontiers in Psychology

Mental Health Awareness is a Leadership Skill Insead

Mental health Awareness a vital Leadership skill as 'change starts at the top' People Matters

Mental Health s a Mediator of the Transformational Leadership to Better Performance ResearchGate

Paying attention to your Mental Health as a Leader Fast Company

Positive Mental Health for School Leaders Critical Publishing

Self-Awareness in Leadership: How it will make you a better boss BetterUp

The effectiveness of health-oriented leadership interventions for the improvement of mental health of employees in the health care sector: a systematic review Springer Link

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Mental Help and Motivation

The Impact of Mental Health Leadership on Teamwork in Healthcare Organizations: A Serial Mediation Study MDPI

The Importance of Mental Health for Leaders and Those they Lead
Be Well Therapy

The Role of Leadership in Improving Employee Mental Health PMAC

The Science of Wellbeing and Leadership Unmind

Transformation and Transactional Leadership in Mental Health and Substance Abuse Organizations ProQuest

What Leaders Get Wrong About Mental Health Entrepreneur Media

Why Good Mental Health is a Leader’s Best Friend Thoughtful Leader

Why leaders are so important in supporting good mental health in the workplace and the core competencies needed Mental Health Coordinating Council


Why Leaders Need To Prioritize Their Team’s Mental Health Forbes

Why Leadership in Mental Health Care Is Needed Now More Than Ever—and How to Implement Change Harvard Chan

The Intersection Between Leadership and Mental Health - Video

28 May 2025

20 Relationship Red Flags Unfortunately Ignored for Months

Red Flag Antisocial Behavior Awareness and Manifestations

Red Flags to Watch Out for in a Developing Close Relationship 

Common and Perpetual Relationship Red Flags

"The red flags are usually there, you just have to keep your eyes open wider than your heart."— April Mae Monterrosa

You will never know how damaged a person is until you try to love them.” — Anonymous

Common and Perpetual Relationship Red Flags

Relationship Red Flag Behavior Warning Signs

Relationship Red Flag Behavior could be Permanent Behavior

20 Red Flag Behavior / Relationship Conclusions 

For months (during 2019 / 2020) I was witness to / and on the receiving end of the most abusive and antisocial relationship behaviour that I have ever experienced in my life. I started living with my ex-girlfriend during the first Covid-lockdown period where her unprovoked abusive behaviour towards me happened on a regular basis.

I observed many of her communication and behaviour patterns as potential red flags early on in the relationship (even before our lockdown), but foolishly ignored most of them. It was only when her threatening behaviour escalated into physical assault, violence and perpetual verbal abuse that I realised the seriousness of the situation. It wasn't an easy decision, but after this realisation (and the fact that her behaviour against me could deteriorate further) I took the necessary action to withdraw from the toxic relationship.

From red flag incidents to serious antisocial behaviour manifestations 
I will briefly describe twenty of the most profound red flag incidents that occurred during the course of the relationship. This will be followed by associating the incidents with specific irrational behavioural manifestations / characteristics - as perceived and identified by me during an approximately nine-month period.

Red Flag behaviour / incidents that had the biggest impact on me (and the relationship):

  1. She was rarely ever on time when she visited my apartment. To be more than an hour late sometimes is no exaggeration. I phoned her once after she did not arrive for more than three hours - she merely told me she forgot (and this was while she was in my area on business prior to our confirmed appointment).

  2. I lived like a guest in her apartment. In the three to four months I lived with her she never made me feel at home and / or offered me any shelf space for my clothing. I changed clothes out of my bags in the lounge (mornings and nights). She never discussed this with me other than to tell me there is no space for most of my belongings.

  3. She never offered to wash my clothing during the entire lockdown period, but she would do hers once a week. During a four month period I asked her twice - which she then did. The rest of the time I made alternative arrangements. 

  4. I was never thanked for anything I did or purchased. She showed no gratitude whatsoever. Not for food, flowers, gifts, weekends away etc. - I was never thanked for any of my efforts and / or any payments for whatever she / we needed.
     
  5. From very early on in the relationship I was asked when are we getting married. I was flattered the first time she asked, but felt uneasy with frequent reminders (as I was learning the rest of her red flag behaviour). 

  6. A few months into the relationship (as I was about to discuss my concerns about her behaviour) I was told the food that I purchased / cooked for us made her fat. This after she selected most of the shopping herself. For this I chased her out of my apartment - of which I immediately aplogised the next day. She never apologised for her inconsiderate comment or behaviour ever.

  7. She told me in the beginning of the relationship of a previous boyfriend taking over in her kitchen. Well, after a few months, she bestowed exactly the same fate upon me. This after I tiptoed 'on egg shells' in her kitchen (and never really taken any initiative unless we were cooking together).

  8. My text messages to her were regularly misinterpreted and / or treated with cold disdain. It was almost if any written communication / text messages were perceived as negative communication (or she had little interest reading them in full). Many of my messages were left unanswered.

  9. I was never trusted with assisting her. She would ask for my assistance with many (financial) projects, but when it came time to assist her she would postpone /or just forget about it. She was very quick to accept any monetary assistance (which I offered through a CFD trading portfolio I created for her). I was never thanked for any profit generated or for the subsequent transfers into her bank account.

  10. She told me one morning she felt like a second-class citizen living in her own apartment with me there. A the time I did not say anything, but I was rather disappointed and taken aback by her comment. 

  11. I was accused early into the relationship that I do not see / responded to her crying (one evening). The more I apologised (over many weeks) that I did not see or heard it, the more she was of opinion that I was lying. Enforced gaslighting in my opinion.

  12. I was threatened with her chef's knife (with the words - 'I will kill you') after she lost a few games of chess against me one evening. The verbal abuse that followed scared me more. I was shocked to the core - this was the first incident of a serious threat and verbal abuse, but unfortunatly not the last.

  13. I was physically assaulted one evening for switching off the television (without her even watching). I was punched, kicked and my shirt ripped from my body. A large chocolate Easter bunny was bashed over my head while I was grabbing my bags to go home. Even then I was still determined to make the relationship work. How naïve of me... 

  14. She was verbally abusive on many occasions. Mostly over the telephone and it escalated to weekly episodes towards the end of the relationship. It was so bad at times that I had to switch my phone off.

  15. She never apologized for anything. She even sent me a follow-up message to remind me that I deserved to be assaulted by her - referring to the physical assault and Easter bunny incident. No remorse or compassion were ever shown towards me.  

  16. I have never met a more obtuse racist in my life. Needless to say that I have never witnessed  bigotry of this nature from anyone in any personal, social or business relationship before. I was concerned with her blatant racist name calling and belittling (of anyone from a different race) from very early in the relationship.

  17. Her frequent (and vulgar) swearing made me cringe at times. She would swear at her mother (over the phone) when she did not get her way. It did not take her very long to engage with me in exactly the same tone of verbal abuse (and swearing) as she did towards her mother.

  18. Asked me to hide (or leave) for three hours when a male friend was about to visit her one weekend. I was very upset about this. Apart from her mother and brothers (and one friend) she did not introduce me to anybody else in her life - not even to one of her employees when we visited her clothing boutique one afternoon. 

  19. On occasion I did nor respond to her threatening text messages and she phoned my sister to inform her in no uncertain terms that she wants to kill me. My sister put the phone down after getting verbally abused by her, but phoned her back a while later to engage in a normal discussion.

  20. Bad-mouthing of a previous boyfriend over and over again. In the beginning of the relationship I believed her, now I know he must have gone through the same patterns / red flags as me. Today I am probably as bad a statistic as him (and possibly others) when measured against her more than likely psychopathological mindset.

Classic Antisocial Behaviour Characteristics identified from my Red Flag list:
  • Aggressive Disposition 𐐭 Antagonism 𐐭 Anger  
  • Callousness 𐐭 Controlling Nature 𐐭 Disrespectful
  • Emotionally Unavailable 𐐭 Excessive Swearing
  • False Sense of Entitlement 𐐭 Grandiose Delusions
  • Inconsiderate Behavior 𐐭 Lack of Trust 𐐭 Poor Confidence
  • Lack of Hospitality 𐐭 Lack of Self-Awareness 𐐭 Unequal Effort 
  • No Empathy 𐐭 No Compassion 𐐭 No Gratitude
  • No Remorse 𐐭 Physical Assault 𐐭 Poor Communication
  • Poor Decision-Making 𐐭 Poor Financial Planning
  • Chronic Lateness 𐐭 Racism 𐐭 Rage 𐐭 Gaslighting
  • Negative Score Keeping  𐐭 Self-Centered 𐐭 Emotional Projection
  • Selfishness 𐐭 Verbal Abusive 𐐭 Domestic Violence
  • Self-Absorbed 𐐭 False Sense of Self (Environment)


Hare Psychopathy Checklist Correlation
My 'Antisocial Behavioural List' is not necessarily aligned with the relatively well-known 'Hare Psychopathy Checklist' developed by Dr. Robert Hare. The 'red flag' characteristics as described by me where experienced from an intermittent behavioural perspective that manifested a definite pervasive pattern over time. The 'Antisocial Behaviour Characteristics' as experienced by me correlates significantly with some of Hare's psychopathy behaviour descriptions. However, there are many antisocial behavioural criteria described by Hare that had no association during my own 'red flag' behavioural observations and / or personal conclusions (from an antisocial and contentious partner).

Relationship Antisocial Behavior Manifestations >>

DSM-5-TR Antisocial Behavior Criteria
What made me really think (after the relationship) from a more contemporary research perspective and / or possible origin of many 'universal relationship red flags' are the various well-defined antisocial behaviour symptoms as published by the American Psychiatric Association in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the DSM-5-TR (2020). Read more about the (diagnostic) criteria with reference to antisocial behaviour as published in a DSM-referenced article by the NIH / National Library of Medicine (Kristy A. Fisher; Tyler J. Torrico; Manassa Hany. U.S. Feb. 2024). There may be various reasons for someone displaying 'red flags' at the start or during a (personal) relationship, but it is worth having a look at the above NIH article in gaining a more coherent understanding of continuous, perpetual antisocial behavior, especially when persistent (or subtle) and / or perceived antisocial behaviourism that could (also) be experienced as 'relationship red flags'.

Despite the waving red flags...
There were various other intermittent behaviour unpleasantries, but less obvious 'red flag' incidents. The covert warnings signs were omnipresent, like tiny flashing needles, slowly weaving disturbing patterns into an unhealthy codependent relationship tapestry - from the first day I met her until literally the cathartic final week. I still wonder many times why I did not leave earlier. There were many days when I knew I had enough, but still decided to stay. I really believed, against my own better judgement, that we could have worked things out. I wanted this particular relationship to be normal for both of us - with mutual love, trust and respect. Unfortunately, I knew from early on that she would not or could not be that special person to spend the rest of my life with. Cognitive Dissonance had a field day on most days in my head - and all I did was deferring the inevitable. 

Distorted sense of self
She did not see anything wrong from her side of the relationship. She kept on lecturing me / reminding me ever so often about all the so-called things I did wrong - to the extent that I asked her if she kept an Excel spreadsheet for scoring / updating my (poor) behaviour and judgements. An important note here is that her 'lecturing' always occurred when I wanted to discuss the state of the relationship. Towards the end she gave me one opportunity for discussing the relationship without interrupting me - and that was the unfortunate moment I realised that 'the lights were on, but no-one's home'.

Antisocial behaviour concern
Some of my major concerns were her relentless lack of empathy, gratitude, guilt and remorse during the relationship. The growing awareness of these chronic rudimental behaviour deficiencies manifested to such an extend inside me that I started questioning my own sanity to ever 'live up to her standards and / or perfectionism'. It was only settled within me after I took a step back and rationally assessed her overall behavioral disposition on my own / and with the guidance of one of my professional mental health / life coach friends. My friend's honesty stung at first, but it was exactly the objective re-assurance I needed to hear that I am involved in a (codependent) relationship with someone displaying frequent narcissistic and antisocial behaviour tendencies.

'Justification' for abusive behaviour
Towards the end of the relationship I received a text message to let me know that I deserved to be attacked by her - referring to the insident where she hit me over the head. Probably her own callous 'justification' that she did the right thing. I did not respond. A while later I received a second message inviting me to have lunch with her the following day. I responded more than 24 hours later to let her know that due to her first message lunch would never have been an option. This was perhaps the final straw that broke the camel's back. It was the first time that I enforced a boundary for not accepting an invitation and / or meeting with her. 


Reflecting on the troublesome relationship
In hindsight it is easy to say I could have handled the relationship / her Jekyll and Hyde behaviour towards me differently. I wish I could, but at the time things were moving so quickly and for what it's worth I had some of the best times of my life as well with her. Reflecting on the relationship red flags / other disparities I have identified my own interpersonal relationship challenges with regard to my cognitive dissonance and my relationship codependency shortcomings. Working towards a healthier interpersonal and relationship boundary framework is one of my first behavioral goals for creating a more confident approach towards other / future relationships.

© Vernon Chalmers : Mental Health and Motivation (20 Relationship Red Flags)

"Vernon Chalmers has written extensively about relationship red flags on his “Mental Health and Motivation” website. He shares his personal experiences and insights to help others recognize and address these warning signs early on.

In his article titled “20 Relationship Red Flags Unfortunately Ignored for Months,” he outlines several key red flags, including:
  • Lack of Gratitude: He noticed that his partner rarely thanked him for anything he did or purchased, which was a significant red flag.
  • Inconsistent Behavior: His partner was often late for appointments and sometimes forgot about them entirely.
  • Lack of Consideration: During the time he lived with his partner, she never made him feel at home or offered him space for his belongings.
  • Unprovoked Abusive Behavior: He experienced regular unprovoked abusive behavior, which escalated to physical assault and perpetual verbal abuse 1.

Chalmers emphasizes the importance of not ignoring these red flags, as they can indicate deeper issues in the relationship. Recognizing and addressing these signs early can help prevent further emotional and physical harm." (Source: Microsoft Copilot 2024)

Identifying Red Flags in a Relationship (normally within the first few weeks / months)

"Identifying red flags in a relationship is crucial for maintaining a healthy and fulfilling partnership.

Here are some common red flags to be aware of:
  • Controlling Behavior: If your partner tries to control who you see, what you do, or how you spend your time, it can be a sign of deeper issues 1.

  • Lack of Respect: Disrespect can manifest in many ways, such as belittling comments, ignoring boundaries, or dismissing your feelings 2.

  • Dishonesty: Frequent lying or hiding things from you can erode trust and create a toxic environment 3.

  • Emotional or Physical Abuse: Any form of abuse, whether emotional, physical, or psychological, is a major red flag and should not be tolerated 2.

  • Love Bombing: Over-the-top gestures and excessive attention early in the relationship can sometimes be a tactic to manipulate and control later on 1.

  • Lack of Communication: Poor communication can lead to misunderstandings and unresolved conflicts, which can strain the relationship 4.

  • Jealousy and Possessiveness: While some jealousy is normal, excessive jealousy and possessiveness can indicate insecurity and lead to controlling behavior 5.

  • Substance Abuse: Issues with drugs or alcohol can significantly impact the health and stability of a relationship 1.

If you notice any of these signs, it’s important to address them early on." (Source: Microsoft Copilot)

The Application of Photo-Therapy in Psychotherapy

Photo-Therapy Exemplifies the Intersection of At and Psychology, offering clients a compelling Medium for Reflection, Expression, and Change

The Application of Photo-Therapy in Psychotherapy


Abstract

"Photo-therapy, an emergent and innovative branch within expressive arts therapies, utilizes photographic images to facilitate psychological healing and personal insight. The use of personal photographs - whether taken by the client or sourced from other meaningful contexts - has been found to aid in memory recall, emotional expression, identity reconstruction, and trauma recovery. This paper explores the theoretical basis of photo-therapy, key methodologies, clinical applications, benefits, and limitations, supported by contemporary research. Integrating both narrative and cognitive-behavioral therapy principles, photo-therapy reveals itself as a valuable adjunct to traditional psychotherapeutic approaches, particularly in trauma, grief, identity crises, and mental illness recovery.


Report Index:
  1. Introduction
  2. Historical Background and Theoretical Foundations
  3. Methodologies in Photo-Therapy
  4. Photo-Dialogue and Reflective Practice
  5. Clinical Applications of Photo-Therapy
  6. Populations and Settings
  7. Integration with Other Therapeutic Modalities
  8. Ethical Considerations and Limitations
  9. Research Evidence and Efficacy
  10. Future Directions
  11. Conclusion
  12. References
  13. Report Compiler
  14. Disclaimer

1. Introduction

"Psychotherapy has evolved considerably over the past century, incorporating diverse methodologies from psychoanalysis to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and more recently, expressive arts therapies. Photo-therapy, a lesser-known yet increasingly studied technique, utilizes photography as a tool to evoke memories, stimulate emotional awareness, and promote psychological healing (Weiser, 1999). As both a reflective and projective medium, photographs hold a unique psychological resonance. They serve as windows to the past, lenses into the present, and projections toward an imagined future. This paper explores how photo-therapy is integrated within psychotherapy and its efficacy as a therapeutic tool across a range of populations.


2. Historical Background and Theoretical Foundations

  • Origins of Photo-Therapy

Photo-therapy as a therapeutic practice emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, largely influenced by pioneers such as Judy Weiser, a psychologist and art therapist who formalized the term "photo-therapy" and created structured methods for its implementation (Weiser, 1999). Drawing upon theories from humanistic psychology, psychodynamic therapy, narrative therapy, and expressive arts, Weiser and others established the framework within which photos are used not only as memories but also as metaphorical and symbolic tools for introspection and change.

  • Psychological Foundations

Photographs are deeply psychological objects. As Barthes (1981) noted, they are "messages without a code," containing both emotional and cognitive cues. Their interpretive power lies in their ability to capture subjective experiences. Cognitive-behavioral frameworks suggest that images can activate underlying schemas - core beliefs about the self, others, and the world (Beck, 2011). In narrative therapy, photos help externalize problems and allow individuals to reconstruct their life stories with a new lens (White & Epston, 1990). These overlapping frameworks offer a multidimensional understanding of how photo-therapy engages the mind and emotions.


3. Methodologies in Photo-Therapy


Types of Photo-Therapy Techniques

According to Weiser (1999), five primary techniques are commonly used in photo-therapy:

  • Photos Taken by the Client: Clients are encouraged to take photographs that represent their emotions, values, or life events. These images serve as starting points for exploration.

  • Personal and Family Albums: Reviewing old photographs can bring suppressed or repressed memories to the surface and offer insight into familial relationships and personal history.

  • Clinician-Taken or Curated Photos: Therapists may use curated photo sets to stimulate conversation, particularly useful in populations struggling with verbal expression.

  • Self-Portraits: Clients create images of themselves, encouraging reflection on identity and self-concept.

  • Projective Use of Photographs: Clients interpret ambiguous or symbolic images, allowing projection of unconscious thoughts and feelings.

4. Photo-Dialogue and Reflective Practice

In addition to the images themselves, the therapeutic dialogue surrounding the photos plays a critical role. Clients are prompted to articulate the meaning of the images, how they felt at the time the photo was taken, and how the image relates to current struggles or goals. This reflective process often leads to profound insights and reframing of experiences (Weiser, 2010).

5 . Clinical Applications of Photo-Therapy

  • Trauma and PTSD

Trauma survivors often experience fragmented or repressed memories. Photo-therapy can assist in reconstructing narrative coherence and emotional processing. In trauma-focused therapy, clients might use photos to represent safe places, past selves, or triggers. A study by Frosh (2013) demonstrated how photo-elicitation improved verbal articulation and emotional release in survivors of childhood abuse.

  • Grief and Loss

In grief counseling, photographs serve as transitional objects. They allow mourners to maintain a connection with the deceased, revisit shared experiences, and express unresolved feelings. Neimeyer (2012) found that clients using photo albums in grief therapy reported greater acceptance and meaning reconstruction.

  • Identity Development

Adolescents and young adults undergoing identity formation benefit from self-portrait work and thematic photo assignments. These exercises enhance self-awareness and promote autonomy (Kogan, 2010). In gender identity therapy, photo sequences have been used to visualize gender transition, helping clients affirm and accept evolving identities.

  • Depression and Anxiety

For individuals with mood disorders, photo-therapy introduces a non-verbal outlet that can bypass resistance. Clients often report that photographing daily life helps externalize their depressive experience and reduce internal rumination (Ginicola, Smith, & Trzaska, 2012). It can also serve as a behavioral activation strategy in CBT-based models.

  • Eating Disorders and Body Image

Body image distortions are often entrenched in visual perception. Photo-therapy has been employed to challenge these perceptions. Studies indicate that taking and discussing self-portraits can lead to shifts in self-acceptance and body appreciation (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015).

 

6. Populations and Settings

  • Children and Adolescents

Photo-therapy is particularly effective with children and teens who may struggle to articulate emotions verbally. Photography can serve as a bridge between affective experiences and cognitive understanding. In schools and clinical youth programs, students are often encouraged to create "photo-diaries" of their emotional landscapes (Wang & Burris, 1997).

  • Older Adults

Elderly clients benefit from life-review therapy using photographs, which aids in preserving identity, reducing depression, and improving cognitive functioning (Habermas & Bluck, 2000). Photographs evoke rich autobiographical memories, often triggering forgotten episodes.

  • Refugees and Marginalized Groups

Among refugees and asylum seekers, photographs can validate personal histories, preserve cultural identity, and process displacement trauma. Participatory photography, such as the "Photovoice" method, has been employed to empower marginalized voices and influence policy change (Wang & Burris, 1997).

 

7. Integration with Other Therapeutic Modalities

Photo-therapy is seldom used in isolation. It is often integrated with established modalities such as:

  • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Clients use photographs to identify cognitive distortions or maladaptive beliefs.

  • Narrative Therapy: Photos aid in creating alternative stories or reconstructing disempowering narratives.

  • Mindfulness-Based Therapy: Mindful photography practices cultivate present-moment awareness and acceptance (Bentz, 2017).

  • Art Therapy: Photography is one of many creative modalities that promote non-verbal emotional processing.

8. Ethical Considerations and Limitations

  • Confidentiality and Consent

Photographs can contain sensitive personal information. Clinicians must ensure that consent is obtained for the use and storage of images. When photos involve third parties, privacy rights must also be considered (Weiser, 2010).

  • Cultural Sensitivity

Images are culturally loaded and may carry different meanings in different societies. Therapists must be attuned to the cultural symbolism of photographs and avoid imposing interpretations.

  • Accessibility and Equipment

While smartphones and digital cameras are widespread, not all clients have access to photographic tools. Therapists must adapt to the technological context of each client.

  • Therapist Training

Photo-therapy requires specialized training to ensure ethical and effective practice. Misinterpretation or over-reliance on visual content without proper clinical framing can reduce its efficacy (Ginicola et al., 2012).

 

9. Research Evidence and Efficacy

Though relatively young, empirical support for photo-therapy is growing. A meta-analysis by Clements (2018) found moderate to strong effects in emotional expression, self-awareness, and treatment adherence. Clinical case studies across trauma, grief, and depression suggest improved insight and client engagement. However, more longitudinal and controlled studies are needed to establish causality and standardize outcomes.


10. Future Directions

Photo-therapy is poised to expand with the evolution of digital photography and virtual reality. Emerging fields such as digital storytelling, social media therapy, and AI-assisted photo interpretation hold promise. Researchers are also exploring neural correlates of photo-based memory recall through fMRI, which may enhance scientific understanding of its impact (Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000).

Training programs and therapeutic curricula increasingly include photo-therapy as a specialization, signaling its maturation as a clinical discipline. Future integration with mobile health (mHealth) applications may democratize access and allow for self-directed therapeutic photography.


11. Conclusion

Photo-therapy exemplifies the intersection of art and psychology, offering clients a compelling medium for reflection, expression, and change. Its capacity to access deeply embedded emotions, reconstruct identity, and aid in trauma resolution makes it a powerful adjunct in the psychotherapeutic toolkit. While challenges remain in standardization and training, the benefits of photo-therapy are increasingly evident across diverse populations and settings. As technology and therapeutic approaches evolve, the lens through which we view mental health will likely become more visual, symbolic, and accessible - capturing not only moments but transformations. (source: ChatGPT 2025)

12. References

Barthes, R. (1981). Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Hill and Wang.

Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Basics and Beyond (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Bentz, J. (2017). Mindful photography: A tool for emotional regulation. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 12(1), 42–55.

Clements, K. (2018). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of photo-therapy interventions. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 35(3), 124–134.

Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261–288.

Frosh, S. (2013). Using photographs in qualitative psychology research. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 10(1), 1–7.

Ginicola, M. M., Smith, C., & Trzaska, J. (2012). Counseling with photo-therapy: Using client-generated photos to promote growth and healing. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 7(4), 310–329.

Habermas, T., & Bluck, S. (2000). Getting a life: The emergence of the life story in adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 748–769.

Kogan, L. (2010). Exploring identity through photography in adolescence. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 37(2), 131–139.

Neimeyer, R. A. (2012). Techniques of Grief Therapy: Creative Practices for Counseling the Bereaved. Routledge.

Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). The body appreciation scale-2: Item refinement and psychometric evaluation. Body Image, 12, 53–67.

Wang, C., & Burris, M. A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health Education & Behavior, 24(3), 369–387.

Weiser, J. (1999). Photo-Therapy Techniques: Exploring the Secrets of Personal Snapshots and Family Albums. PhotoTherapy Centre.

Weiser, J. (2010). Phototherapy in therapy: Using client’s personal snapshots and family photos as counseling tools. Canadian Art Therapy Association Journal, 23(1), 26–33.

13. Report Compiler: ChatGPT 2025

14. Disclaimer

This 'The Application of Photo-Therapy in Psychotherapy' report is based on information available at the time of its preparation and is provided for informational purposes only. While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy and completeness, errors and omissions may occur. The compiler of The Application of Photo-Therapy in Psychotherapy report (ChatGPT) and / or Vernon Chalmers for the Mental Health and Motivation website (in the capacity as report requester) disclaim any liability for any inaccuracies, errors, or omissions and will not be held responsible for any decisions or conclusions made based on this information."

🎓 Mental Health, Psychology and Relationship Resources

25 May 2025

Lack of Childhood Empathy: Impact in Adulthood

Report: The Probable Psychological Consequences of the lack of Childhood Empathy Later in Adult Life

Lack of Childhood Empathy Impact in Adulthood
Index:
  1. Introduction: Defining Empathy and its Significance Across the Lifespan
  2. Defining Empathy: Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Components
  3. Key Milestones in Emotional Empathy Development
  4. Key Milestones in Cognitive Empathy Development
  5. Factors Influencing Empathy Development in Children
  6. Causes and Contributing Factors to a Lack of Empathy Development
  7. Prevalence of Empathy Deficits in the Adult Population
  8. Review of Existing Studies and Reports on Empathy Levels
  9. Observed Trends and Potential Contributing Factors to Empathy Decline (or Increase)
  10. Conclusion
  11. Report Compiler
  12. Disclaimer

1. Introduction: Defining Empathy and its Significance Across the Lifespan

Empathy, a cornerstone of social interaction and emotional intelligence, is a multifaceted construct that encompasses the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. In the context of child development, empathy signifies a child's capacity to recognize that they are distinct from those around them and that other individuals possess unique feelings and perspectives 1. This involves not only identifying emotions in oneself and others but also being able to name them 1. Developmental psychology generally defines empathy as an affective response stemming from the comprehension of another's emotional state, a response similar to what the other person is feeling or would be expected to feel in a given situation 2. This understanding often leads to an increased likelihood of helping others and demonstrating compassion 3. It is important to distinguish between emotional empathy, which involves feeling the same emotion as another person, experiencing personal distress in response to another's plight, or feeling compassion, and cognitive empathy, which refers to the ability to perceive and understand the emotions of another 3. Furthermore, empathy differs from sympathy; while empathy involves understanding another person's experience as if it were one's own while maintaining a distinction between self and other, sympathy entails being moved by or responding in tune with another person 3.

The development of empathy is crucial for a child's social and moral growth. It serves as a building block of morality, enabling individuals to adhere to principles like the Golden Rule by allowing them to put themselves in someone else's shoes 3. Empathy is also a key ingredient in successful relationships, as it facilitates the understanding of others' perspectives, needs, and intentions 3. Research indicates that children who exhibit higher levels of empathy tend to have more positive interactions and more satisfying relationships with friends and family 4. Moreover, empathy is linked to prosocial behaviors, such as altruistic helping, which can emerge early in childhood 3. A lack of empathy, conversely, can have significant negative repercussions on an individual's social functioning, relationships, and overall well-being, extending into adulthood and impacting broader societal dynamics. This report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the developmental trajectory of empathy in childhood, the factors that influence its development, the potential causes and consequences of empathy deficits, and possible interventions to foster this crucial capacity.

The Developmental Trajectory of Empathy in Childhood

2. Defining Empathy: Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Components

Empathy is not a monolithic entity but rather a multifaceted construct comprising affective, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions 5. The affective component entails empathic concern, which is the ability to feel, share, and respond to others' emotional experiences 5. This emotional resonance allows an individual to connect with the feelings of another. The cognitive component centers on perspective-taking abilities, involving the understanding and attribution of mental states and viewpoints to others 5. This is often referred to as "theory of mind," the capacity to recognize that others have thoughts, feelings, and intentions that may differ from one's own 8. The behavioral component manifests in socially adapted actions triggered by the emotional situation of another, such as comforting, sharing, or reassuring 6. These behaviors are the outward expression of empathic understanding and concern. The development of empathy involves a significant shift from an initial focus on self to a concern for others 5. This progression occurs alongside gains in self-other differentiation, the ability to distinguish one's own feelings and experiences from those of others, perspective-taking, and the capacity for emotion regulation 5.

3. Key Milestones in Emotional Empathy Development

Emotional empathy, the capacity to share and experience the feelings of others, unfolds through distinct stages from infancy to adolescence.

  • Infancy (0-2 years): The earliest signs of emotional empathy often manifest as emotional contagion, where infants mimic the emotions they observe in others 10. For instance, a baby may cry upon hearing another baby cry, a phenomenon sometimes called affective empathy 4. This reactive crying is believed to occur because young infants have not yet developed a clear differentiation between themselves and others 4. However, by around 18 months, a more direct form of empathic concern emerges. Children at this age may respond to the distress of others with appropriate facial expressions, gestures, or vocalizations, indicating they are emotionally affected by another person's pain 12. This marks a crucial developmental step, as it requires the child to begin distinguishing between the self and others 12.
  • Toddlerhood (2-3 years): As children grow into toddlerhood, they begin to show more pronounced signs of empathetic concern 4. Between 19 and 24 months, toddlers may pause or look sad or concerned when another person appears upset or is crying 4. By the age of two, some children may even attempt to comfort a distressed peer by offering a hug 4. This period is also marked by a growing understanding that they are distinct individuals from those around them, a sense of self that is fundamental to the development of empathy 4.
  • Preschool Years (3-5 years): During the preschool years, children increasingly understand that other people can have different experiences and emotions 4. This capability, known as perspective-taking or theory of mind, allows for a new type of empathy to develop 4. Starting between the ages of four and five, children are generally better able to understand the thoughts and feelings of another person 4. They may begin to verbalize emotions, using words like "sad" or "happy," and can relate these feelings to themselves and others 14. Children at this stage may also show concern for others by offering comfort or sharing toys 14.
  • Middle Childhood (7-12 years): In middle childhood, children develop a greater emotional understanding, becoming capable of comprehending more complex emotions and the motivations behind others' actions 14. They begin to grasp the concept of fairness and justice, relating it to empathy in social situations 14. By this age, most children can reliably see things from another's perspective and show genuine empathy for another's experiences and feelings 15.
  • Adolescence (12+ years): Adolescence marks a stage where teenagers can understand empathy on a more abstract level, considering societal issues and the feelings of others beyond their immediate environment 14. They develop deeper emotional connections with peers and may engage in advocacy for others' rights and well-being 14. Research suggests that affective empathy remains relatively high and stable throughout adolescence 17.

4. Key Milestones in Cognitive Empathy Development

Cognitive empathy, the ability to understand another person's mental state and perspective, also progresses through childhood.

  • Early Childhood (4-6 years): A significant milestone in cognitive empathy is the development of theory of mind, which typically occurs during the preschool years 4. This allows children to understand that others have their own thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, which may differ from their own 8. Around the age of four, children can begin to understand and show empathy for another person's perspective and their reactions to an event 4.
  • Middle Childhood (7-10 years): During middle childhood, children become increasingly able to understand the viewpoint of others and are aware that others can have different thoughts 15. They develop the ability to focus on several aspects of a problem at a time and can concentrate for longer periods, contributing to their enhanced perspective-taking abilities 18.
  • Adolescence (13-19 years): Cognitive empathy continues to develop during adolescence 17. Studies indicate that cognitive empathy begins rising around the age of 13 in girls and around 15 in boys 16. This development is an important component of social problem-solving and conflict avoidance 16. However, some research suggests a slight reduction in cognitive empathy during adolescence before it reaches functional maturity in early adulthood 9.
Age Range Emotional Empathy Milestones Cognitive Empathy Milestones
Infancy (0-2)Emotional contagion (mimicking emotions) 10; Emergence of concern for others around 18 months (facial expressions, gestures, vocalizations) 12.
Toddlerhood (2-3) Recognition of emotions in others and showing concern 4; Attempting to comfort others 4. Understanding of self as distinct from others 4.
Preschool (3-5) Understanding that others have different experiences and emotions (perspective-taking) 4; Verbalizing emotions and relating them to self and others 6. Developing "theory of mind," enabling perspective-taking 4; Understanding that others can have different thoughts 18.
Middle Childhood (7-12) Greater understanding of complex emotions and motivations 14; Developing a sense of fairness and justice related to empathy 14. Increased ability to understand others' viewpoints 15; Better able to empathize and consider those in greater need 18.
Adolescence (12+) Understanding empathy on a more abstract level, considering societal issues 9; Deeper emotional connections and potential for advocacy 14 Continued development of perspective-taking and concern for others 9; Cognitive empathy begins rising around 13 (girls) and 15 (boys) 16; Slight reduction in cognitive empathy may occur 9.

5. Factors Influencing Empathy Development in Children

The development of empathy in children is a complex process shaped by a multitude of interacting factors, including parenting styles, environmental influences, and individual differences.

Parenting Styles and Their Impact on Empathy

The way parents interact with their children plays a pivotal role in shaping their capacity for empathy. An authoritative parenting style, characterized by high responsiveness to the child's needs and high expectations for mature behavior, has been consistently linked to greater empathy in children 31. This parenting approach, which emphasizes warmth, reasoning, and respecting the child's perspective while setting clear boundaries, fosters an environment where children feel understood and are encouraged to understand others 32. Conversely, authoritarian parenting, which is demanding and less responsive, permissive parenting, which is responsive but undemanding, and dismissive parenting, characterized by low responsiveness and low demands, have been negatively associated with empathy development 32.

Parental warmth and the use of reasoning, where parents explain the reasons behind rules and expectations, also contribute significantly to a child's empathetic growth 31. However, the effectiveness of these parenting behaviors can be moderated by the child's temperament 31. For instance, maternal warmth may be particularly beneficial for children with a low-inhibited temperament, while maternal reasoning might be less effective for highly inhibited children 31. Perhaps one of the most influential factors is the modeling of empathetic behavior by parents 4. Children learn by observing the adults in their lives, and when parents consistently demonstrate understanding and compassion towards others, children are more likely to internalize these behaviors and develop their own empathetic responses 4.

Environmental Influences

Beyond parenting, the broader environment in which a child grows significantly impacts their empathy development. Secure attachment to primary caregivers, characterized by consistent and responsive caregiving, provides a crucial foundation for empathy 8. When children feel safe, secure, and loved, they are more likely to become sensitive to the emotional needs of others 8. Warm and low-conflict relationships with siblings can also contribute positively to empathy in late childhood and adolescence 40.

As children's social worlds expand, peer relationships become increasingly central to the development of prosocial behaviors, including empathy 40. High friendship quality, marked by mutual support and understanding, has been linked to increased empathetic responses and perspective-taking in adolescents 40. Conversely, negative peer interactions, such as bullying, have been associated with lower levels of both affective and cognitive empathy 40. The socio-cultural context also plays a vital role, with cultural norms and values shaping how children understand and express empathy 36. Feeling culturally similar to someone in distress can increase perspective-taking and empathic concern 40. Furthermore, the school environment and the quality of relationships with teachers can influence empathy development, with warm and reciprocal teacher-student relationships being associated with increased empathy and prosocial behaviors 38.

Individual Differences

Children's innate characteristics also contribute to the variation in empathy development. Temperament, a child's natural disposition and reactivity, can moderate the impact of parenting on empathy 8. For instance, children with different temperaments may respond differently to the same parenting strategies aimed at fostering empathy 31. Neurodiversity, encompassing variations in cognitive functioning such as autism, can also influence how children experience and express empathy 36. While some neurodivergent children may face unique challenges in understanding social cues, it is important to recognize the diversity within this group and avoid generalizations 36.

Gender differences in empathy have been observed, although research findings are not always consistent 6. Some studies suggest that girls may exhibit greater emotional empathy and helping behaviors, while boys might show slightly more cognitive empathy in certain developmental stages 37. However, these differences are often nuanced and can vary depending on the specific aspects of empathy being measured 6. Furthermore, attachment security, the quality of the early bond between a child and their caregiver, is a significant predictor of empathy, with securely attached children tending to display higher levels of empathy 38. Finally, a child's own emotional regulation skills, their ability to manage and express their emotions in healthy ways, and their verbal ability, the capacity to understand and use language, are also associated with their developing capacity for empathy 5.

Factor CategorySpecific FactorDescription/Impact

AuthoritativePositively associated with empathy; high responsiveness and high demands foster understanding and perspective-taking 31.
Parenting Styles Parental Warmth & Reasoning Contribute to empathy; warmth linked to higher empathy in low-inhibited children, reasoning linked to lower empathy in high-inhibited children 31.

Modeling Empathetic Behavior Crucial for children to learn and imitate empathetic responses 4.
Environmental Influences Family Dynamics (Secure Attachment) Family Dynamics (Sibling Relationships) Fosters a better understanding of own and others' emotions, leading to higher empathy 8

Family Dynamics (Sibling Relationships) Warm and low-conflict relationships associated with increased empathy in later childhood and adolescence 40.

Peer Relationships High friendship quality increases empathy; negative interactions (bullying) decrease it 40.

Socio-cultural Context Cultural norms and values shape the understanding and expression of empathy; cultural similarity increases empathic concern 36.

School Environment & Teacher Relationships Warm and reciprocal relationships with teachers associated with increased empathy 38.
Individual Differences Temperament Can moderate the impact of parenting on empathy; neurodivergent children may develop empathy differently 8.

Gender Differences observed in expression and development, but findings vary; girls may show more emotional empathy, boys more cognitive empathy in some stages 6.

Attachment Security Secure attachment linked to higher levels of empathy 38.

6. Causes and Contributing Factors to a Lack of Empathy Development

The failure to develop adequate empathy during childhood can stem from a variety of causes and contributing factors, often involving a complex interplay of individual experiences and environmental influences.

  • The Role of Trauma and Neglect
Childhood trauma, encompassing experiences such as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse, neglect, or the loss of a loved one, can significantly impact a child's emotional and social development, potentially leading to deficits in empathy 47. While some research suggests that trauma survivors might develop heightened empathy as a form of survival mechanism or due to increased sensitivity to emotional cues, other studies indicate that childhood trauma, particularly emotional abuse and neglect, can be associated with decreased empathetic concern and difficulty in taking another person's perspective 51. Emotional neglect, which involves the consistent failure of caregivers to acknowledge, validate, and respond appropriately to a child's emotions, can be particularly damaging to empathy development 49. When a child's feelings are regularly dismissed or ignored, they may learn to suppress their own emotions and struggle to recognize and understand the emotions of others 52.

  • Impact of Attachment Difficulties
The quality of early attachment relationships plays a crucial role in shaping a child's capacity for empathy. Insecure attachment styles, such as anxious, avoidant, or resistant attachment, which often result from inconsistent or insensitive caregiving, have been linked to lower levels of empathy 38. Children who experience unloving or inconsistent caregiving may develop difficulties in forming close relationships, trusting others, and understanding the emotional needs of those around them 54. The lack of a secure base and a reliable source of emotional support in early childhood can hinder the development of the fundamental trust and emotional attunement necessary for empathy to flourish.

  • Potential Links to Developmental and Personality Disorders
Certain developmental and personality disorders are often associated with a lack of empathy. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by varying degrees of difficulty with social communication and interaction, which can include challenges with cognitive empathy, the ability to understand others' perspectives 47. However, it is important to note that individuals with ASD may still experience emotional empathy, although they might face challenges in expressing it or understanding the complex social situations that evoke certain emotions 50. Personality disorders such as Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD), often associated with psychopathy, and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) are also frequently linked to empathy deficits 3. In NPD and psychopathy, individuals may possess cognitive empathy but lack genuine emotional concern for others 56. In contrast, individuals with BPD might exhibit impaired cognitive empathy but experience normal or even heightened emotional empathy 58. Other factors, such as excessive screen time and limited opportunities for real-world social interaction, have also been suggested as potential contributors to reduced empathy in children 49.

  • Manifestations of Childhood Empathy Deficits in Adulthood
A lack of empathy that originates in childhood can manifest in numerous ways in adult behaviors, relationships, and social interactions, often leading to significant challenges in personal and professional life.

  • Difficulties in Forming and Maintaining Relationships
Adults who lacked empathy development in childhood often struggle to form and maintain healthy, fulfilling relationships 3. They may find it difficult to experience intimacy, build trust, and be emotionally vulnerable with others 48. The inability to understand and respond appropriately to the emotions of a partner, friend, or family member can lead to feelings of being unheard, misunderstood, and ultimately lonely within the relationship 55. Furthermore, individuals with empathy deficits might have a tendency to choose toxic or unhealthy partners, perhaps due to an impaired ability to recognize and value healthy relationship dynamics 54.

  • Impaired Social Interactions and Communication
Lack of empathy can severely hinder social interactions and communication 56. Individuals may exhibit poor communication skills, struggle to understand others' perspectives, and experience increased conflict in their interactions 56. They might be perceived as critical, judgmental, and dismissive of the feelings and experiences of others 56. Additionally, they may have difficulty reading social cues, such as facial expressions and body language, and therefore respond inappropriately in social situations 48.

  • Potential for Toxic or Abusive Behaviors
In more severe cases, a lack of childhood empathy can contribute to toxic or even abusive behaviors in adulthood 40. Individuals with significant empathy deficits may display cruelty towards others, take pleasure in their pain, engage in emotional manipulation, and invalidate the feelings of those around them 48. They might also lack remorse or guilt for their harmful actions and exhibit an increased likelihood of aggression and antisocial behavior 40.

  • Psychological Consequences for Adults Lacking Empathy
The absence of empathy in adulthood can have profound psychological consequences for the individual, affecting their mental health and overall well-being.

  • Increased Risk of Personality Disorders
A significant lack of empathy in adulthood is strongly associated with an increased risk of developing certain personality disorders, particularly Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD), often linked with psychopathy, and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) 3. While a lack of empathy is a common thread across these conditions, the specific nature and manifestation of this deficit can vary. For example, in NPD, the lack of empathy often presents as an inability to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others due to a sense of superiority and self-absorption 56. In ASPD, the lack of empathy is frequently accompanied by a disregard for the rights and feelings of others, often with a lack of remorse for harmful actions 3. Individuals with BPD may exhibit difficulties with cognitive empathy, struggling to understand others' perspectives, while still experiencing intense emotional empathy 58.

  • Challenges with Emotional Regulation and Mental Well-being
Adults who lacked empathy development in childhood may also experience challenges with identifying and processing their own emotions, a condition known as alexithymia 52. This difficulty in understanding their own internal states can further impair their ability to recognize and empathize with the emotions of others. Furthermore, a lack of empathy is associated with an increased risk of developing mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, loneliness, and low self-esteem 53. The inability to form meaningful connections and feel understood by others can lead to social isolation and a diminished sense of self-worth 55.

  • Difficulties in Experiencing Intimacy and Connection
The fundamental inability to truly understand and share the feelings of others makes it exceedingly difficult for adults lacking empathy to experience genuine intimacy and connection in their relationships 54. They may avoid emotional intimacy and vulnerability, fearing rejection or simply not understanding the importance of emotional reciprocity 54. Even when in relationships, they might experience a persistent feeling of emptiness and disconnection, unable to forge the deep emotional bonds that characterize healthy interpersonal connections 55.

  • Social Implications of Widespread Lack of Empathy in Adulthood
When a lack of empathy becomes widespread in adulthood, it can have significant and detrimental implications for community cohesion and overall societal well-being.

  • Erosion of Community Cohesion and Social Trust
Empathy serves as a vital foundation for building strong, cohesive communities and fostering social trust 61. When individuals struggle to understand and share the feelings of others, it can lead to increased social divisions, prejudice, discrimination, and ultimately, social unrest 61. Empathy promotes understanding and tolerance towards those who are different, and its absence can deepen societal fault lines, making it difficult to address common challenges and work towards collective well-being 64. A general decline in empathy can also erode social trust, as individuals may become more focused on their own needs and less concerned about the welfare of others 69.

  • Increased Conflict and Reduced Cooperation
Empathy is crucial for effective teamwork and cooperation in various social settings, from workplaces to community initiatives 59. Without the ability to understand and appreciate diverse perspectives, individuals may struggle to work collaboratively, leading to increased conflict and a reduced capacity to achieve shared goals 59. In professional environments, a lack of empathy among leaders and team members can negatively impact innovation, engagement, and inclusion, ultimately hindering productivity and creating a less supportive work culture 70.

  • Impact on Societal Well-being and Prosocial Behaviors
A widespread lack of empathy in adulthood can significantly diminish prosocial behaviors, such as helping others and engaging in volunteerism 59. Empathy motivates individuals to care about the well-being of others and to take action to alleviate suffering 3. A decline in this capacity can lead to a less compassionate and supportive society, where individuals are less inclined to help those in need 59. Furthermore, a lack of empathy can have negative consequences in critical sectors like healthcare, potentially leading to uncompassionate care and poorer patient outcomes 61. In extreme scenarios, a society lacking empathy may even witness an increase in crime and violence, as individuals are less likely to consider the impact of their actions on others 59.

7. Prevalence of Empathy Deficits in the Adult Population

Understanding the prevalence of empathy deficits in the adult population is crucial for gauging the scope of this issue and its potential societal impact. Research on empathy levels in adults has yielded varied findings, with some studies suggesting age-related changes and others highlighting generational trends.

8. Review of Existing Studies and Reports on Empathy Levels

Studies examining the relationship between age and empathy have shown divergent patterns. While some cross-sectional analyses suggest that older adults tend to score lower in empathy compared to younger adults, particularly in cognitive empathy, longitudinal studies, which track individuals over time, have often found no significant age-related decline in empathy 44. This discrepancy suggests that the differences observed in cross-sectional studies might be attributable to cohort effects, meaning that older generations may report lower empathy levels compared to younger ones due to different life experiences and societal norms, rather than an actual decline in empathy as individuals age 73. In contrast, some research indicates that emotional empathy might remain stable or even increase in older adulthood 74.

Gender consistently emerges as a factor influencing empathy levels, with women generally scoring higher than men on measures of both empathic concern and perspective-taking 44. Furthermore, empathy levels appear to vary across different cultures and are often associated with cultural dimensions such as collectivism and individual personality traits like agreeableness 44.

9. Observed Trends and Potential Contributing Factors to Empathy Decline (or Increase)

A frequently cited meta-analysis from 2011 indicated a significant decline in empathy among American college students over the past few decades, with a particularly sharp decrease in emotional empathy 45. This trend was potentially linked to factors such as increased exposure to social media, violence, bullying, and changing parenting practices 45. The increased focus on individual needs and achievements in modern society might also contribute to a perceived decline in empathy towards others 45. However, more recent research has presented a more optimistic view, suggesting a potential rebound in empathy levels among young Americans since 2008 77. This increase has been attributed to factors such as a growing awareness of global challenges and an increasing emphasis on mental health education and support 77. It is also important to note that empathy deficits are a characteristic feature of certain personality disorders, such as narcissistic and antisocial personality disorders, and that empathy levels can be influenced by factors like education and profession, with individuals in caring professions often exhibiting higher levels of empathy 44.

10. Interventions and Therapeutic Approaches for Enhancing Empathy in Adults

Fortunately, research suggests that empathy is not a fixed trait and can be developed and improved throughout the lifespan through targeted interventions and conscious effort 4.

Individual and Group Therapy Techniques

Therapy can provide a valuable space for adults to explore their own emotions, understand their impact on others, and develop greater empathic understanding 52. Experiential therapies, such as emotionally focused therapy, can be particularly effective in unearthing and fostering empathic qualities within individuals and in couples 80. Furthermore, the therapeutic process itself, including working through countertransference in the therapist, can promote empathy in both the therapist and the client 93.

Empathy Training Programs and Exercises

Numerous empathy training programs and exercises are available to help adults enhance their empathic skills 82. These programs often focus on developing specific skills such as active listening, perspective-taking, and recognizing non-verbal cues 57. Engaging in activities like reading fiction, which allows individuals to step into the shoes of different characters, and participating in role-playing scenarios can also be effective ways to cultivate empathy 8.

The Role of Mindfulness and Perspective-Taking Practices

Mindfulness practices, which involve paying attention to the present moment without judgment, can enhance self-awareness, a crucial prerequisite for developing empathy towards others 79. By becoming more attuned to their own emotional states, individuals can better recognize and understand the emotions of those around them. Actively engaging in perspective-taking, consciously trying to understand a situation from another person's viewpoint, is another key strategy for improving empathy 8.

Optimizing one's physical and mental health can also indirectly improve empathy 93. When individuals are well-rested, nourished, and less stressed, they are likely to have more emotional resources available to connect with and understand others. Creating empathetic environments in both personal and professional contexts is also important 85. When empathy is valued and modeled in these settings, it can foster a culture of understanding and compassion, encouraging individuals to develop their own empathic abilities.

11. Conclusion: Synthesizing the Findings and Highlighting the Importance of Early Empathy Development and Adult Interventions

This report has explored the intricate landscape of empathy, from its definition and developmental trajectory in childhood to the far-reaching consequences of its absence in adulthood. Empathy, a multifaceted ability encompassing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components, begins to develop in infancy and continues to mature throughout childhood and adolescence, influenced by a complex interplay of parenting styles, environmental factors, and individual differences. A lack of adequate empathy development during these formative years can manifest in adulthood as difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships, impaired social interactions, and an increased risk of certain psychological challenges, including personality disorders. On a broader scale, widespread empathy deficits can erode community cohesion, hinder cooperation, and negatively impact societal well-being.

While research on the prevalence of empathy deficits in adults presents a complex picture, with findings varying across age groups and generations, there is a growing recognition of the importance of fostering empathy across the lifespan. Fortunately, empathy is a skill that can be cultivated and strengthened in adulthood through various interventions, including therapy, targeted training programs, mindfulness practices, and conscious efforts to adopt the perspectives of others. Recognizing the critical role of early childhood experiences in laying the foundation for empathy underscores the importance of supportive and nurturing environments for children. However, the potential for adults to develop and improve their empathy skills offers a hopeful avenue for addressing existing deficits and promoting a more compassionate and understanding society. Ultimately, fostering empathy at both individual and societal levels is essential for enhancing personal well-being, building healthy relationships, and creating more cohesive and thriving communities.

Category Specific Manifestation/Consequence Supporting Snippets
Behavioral Manifestations Critical and judgmental of others' emotions 56, 61, 56, 56

Dismissive of others' feelings 61, 56, 57, 56

Difficulty understanding how their behavior affects others 61, 56, 56

Cruelty to others, taking pleasure in others' pain 48, 48, 48

Emotional manipulation and invalidation 55, 64

Lack of remorse or guilt 59
Relationship Difficulties Struggles with intimacy, trust, and emotional vulnerability 52, 53, 54, 48, 60, 61, 62, 3, 56, 57, 63, 55, 56, 3, 64

Poor communication skills and increased conflict 60, 61, 62, 56, 57, 61, 56, 64

Difficulty reading social cues 48, 48, 50, 64
Psychological Consequences Increased risk of NPD, ASPD/psychopathy, BPD 48, 3, 57, 55, 56, 3, 59, 58, 56, 48

Difficulty identifying and processing own emotions (alexithymia) 56, 52, 53, 56

Increased risk of depression, anxiety, loneliness, low self-esteem 53, 54, 60, 63, 55, 64

Avoiding emotional intimacy and vulnerability 54, 55
Social Implications Erosion of community cohesion and social trust 61, 64, 67, 69

Increased social divisions, prejudice, discrimination, social unrest 61, 64, 67, 69

Difficulties in teamwork and cooperation 64, 70, 71, 68, 59

Reduced helping behaviors and volunteerism 61, 61, 71, 59

Negative consequences in healthcare 16,27

Potential increase in crime and violence 59

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13. Report Compiler: Google Gemini (Deep Research)