“Consciousness cannot be accounted for in physical terms. For consciousness is absolutely fundamental. It cannot be accounted for in terms of anything else.” ― Erwin Schrödinger
This essay explores the intricate relationship between consciousness and human intelligence, arguing that consciousness is not merely a passive backdrop to thought but an active, adaptive, and integrative aspect of human cognition. Drawing on philosophy, cognitive science, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence research, the essay examines how consciousness enables higher-order reasoning, emotional regulation, self-awareness, and ethical judgment. It discusses prevailing theories of consciousness, the role of subjective experience in intelligent behavior, and the distinction between conscious and unconscious cognitive processes. The conclusion considers the implications of consciousness for the future of artificial intelligence and human identity.
Introduction
Human intelligence is frequently defined through its capacities—reasoning, learning, problem-solving, creativity, and adaptation (Sternberg, 2019). Yet, beneath these cognitive abilities lies a more profound and often enigmatic phenomenon: consciousness. Whereas intelligence can be seen in action—even in machines—consciousness remains elusive in both definition and measurement. The relationship between the two is both central and controversial. Is consciousness just an epiphenomenon arising from neural processes, or is it the core driver of human cognition? This essay critically examines the role of consciousness in human intelligence, arguing that conscious experience fundamentally enhances the cognitive and adaptive capacities that define intelligent behavior.
Defining Consciousness and Intelligence
Consciousness can be broadly defined as the subjective quality of experience—what it feels like to think, to perceive, or to feel emotion (Nagel, 1974). It includes both awareness of external stimuli and internal states, such as thoughts, memories, and sensations (Block, 1995). Intelligence, by contrast, refers to the ability to learn from experience, adapt to new environments, and use reasoning to solve problems (Gottfredson, 1997). While these definitions are traditionally separate, recent work in cognitive science suggests that consciousness enables particularly complex forms of intelligence—especially those involving self-regulation, creativity, and ethical reflection (Murray, 2020).
Historical Perspectives on Consciousness and Intelligence
The relationship between consciousness and intelligence has drawn attention from philosophers for centuries. René Descartes famously proposed cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"), indicating thought and awareness as the foundation of human existence and knowledge (Descartes, 1641/1998). Later, philosophers such as Kant emphasized the unity of consciousness as central to subjective experience and rational thought (Kant, 1781/1998). In the 20th century, cognitive science began reframing these philosophical debates in empirical terms, exploring how mechanics of perception, thought, and memory arise from neural processes.
More recently, computational theories have complicated the picture. Alan Turing (1950) proposed that intelligence could be modeled or simulated by machines, prompting a new question: whether consciousness is necessary for intelligence or whether it is merely an artifact of biological cognition. Contemporary theories vary, with some researchers suggesting that consciousness evolved solely as a byproduct of complex neural architecture, while others view it as intrinsic to advanced reasoning (Tononi, 2012).
Conscious and Unconscious Cognitive Processes
Human cognition operates on both conscious and unconscious levels. Research suggests that many complex behaviors—such as language acquisition, pattern recognition, and emotional reactions—occur without conscious awareness (Kihlstrom, 1987). Unconscious cognitive processes are highly efficient, enabling rapid responses without the need for deliberate thought. Yet consciousness offers something qualitatively different: the ability to reflect, evaluate, and intentionally modify behavior.
For example, while a person may unconsciously react to danger, consciousness allows them to reflect on the event afterward, understand its context, and alter future decisions. This reflective capacity is central to what psychologists identify as metacognition, or "thinking about thinking" (Flavell, 1979). The capacity for self-awareness, introspection, and the monitoring of one’s own cognitive processes is believed to differentiate human intelligence from the more mechanistic intelligence found in animals or machines (Dehaene, 2014).
Consciousness and Executive Function
Executive control—the ability to regulate attention, inhibit responses, plan, and make decisions—is regarded as one of the highest forms of intelligence (Miyake et al., 2000). Consciousness plays a crucial role in executive function. The prefrontal cortex, which is involved in conscious planning and decision-making, is also disproportionately developed in humans compared to other species (Fuster, 2008). Conscious awareness allows individuals to override impulses, consider long-term goals, and engage in moral reasoning (Baumeister & Masicampo, 2010).
Research in neuroscience indicates that consciousness often arises in situations where problems are novel or ill-defined, requiring flexible and creative problem-solving (Dehaene & Changeux, 2011). In contrast, routinized tasks tend to be handled unconsciously or semiconsciously. This suggests that consciousness is particularly important for adaptive intelligence—responding to new, complex, or ambiguous circumstances.
The Phenomenal Contribution to Knowledge and Meaning
Beyond its functional role, consciousness allows humans to assign meaning to experience. Phenomenology, especially as explored by philosophers such as Edmund Husserl and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, suggests that consciousness is not just a container for experience but the medium through which the world is disclosed or made meaningful (Merleau-Ponty, 1945/2012). This phenomenological view ties consciousness to both perception and cognition, framing intelligence as inseparable from lived experience.
While artificial systems can process information and perform complex computations, they lack first-person subjective experience, meaning they cannot derive meaning or value from their operations (Searle, 1980). From this perspective, consciousness enhances human intelligence by grounding it in context, emotion, and meaning, thereby enabling creativity, empathy, and moral judgment.
Consciousness and Social Intelligence
Social intelligence encompasses the capacity to understand, respond to, and navigate interpersonal relationships (Goleman, 2006). Consciousness plays a vital role in this domain through mechanisms such as empathy, theory of mind, and emotional awareness. Empathy, the ability to share and understand the feelings of others, requires a form of reflective consciousness—a recognition of both one’s own emotions and those of others (Singer, 2006).
Theory of mind, or the ability to attribute mental states to others, is similarly dependent on conscious reflection and mental modeling (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). These capabilities are essential for cooperation, communication, and social learning, dimensions of intelligence often neglected in traditional IQ-oriented frameworks. They demonstrate that consciousness is more than a cognitive facilitator; it is a relational and ethical facilitator.
Neural Correlates of Conscious Intelligence
Scientific research has sought to correlate specific neural structures with conscious cognition. The global neuronal workspace (GNW) theory, proposed by Dehaene (2014), suggests that consciousness arises from the integration of distributed neural networks into a unified processing system. According to this view, conscious states are characterized by widespread neural connectivity, enabling the coordination and integration of diverse inputs.
Similarly, the integrated information theory (IIT), developed by Tononi (2012), posits that consciousness corresponds to a system’s ability to integrate information in a unified and irreducible way. IIT links the degree of consciousness to the system’s complexity and causal power. These theories suggest that consciousness is not separate from the mechanisms of intelligence but deeply intertwined with them, emerging at the intersection of integration, complexity, and representation.
Consciousness and Creativity
Creativity—often regarded as a pinnacle of human intelligence—relies on conscious processes such as introspection, imagination, and insight. While unconscious processes contribute to creativity (e.g., through intuition or associative thinking), the conscious mind allows for evaluation, refinement, and intentional innovation (Dietrich, 2004). The creative act often involves a reflective loop between unconscious inspiration and conscious deliberation, highlighting the dynamic interplay between different modes of cognition.
Consciousness and Ethical Reasoning
Ethical reasoning represents another domain where consciousness plays a decisive role in human intelligence. Since morality involves not just rule-following but the consideration of values, intentions, and consequences, it presupposes self-awareness and the capacity for reasoning about abstract principles (Greene & Haidt, 2002). Consciousness enables individuals to reflect on personal and collective values, engage in critical self-examination, and act according to moral commitments.
As machines increase in intelligence, ethical reasoning—a deeply conscious capability—remains a uniquely human territory. While artificial intelligence can be programmed to follow ethical rules, it lacks the capacity to understand or feel moral values (Bryson, 2018).
The Future of Consciousness and Artificial Intelligence
The rise of machine intelligence has forced a critical reevaluation of whether consciousness is necessary for intelligence. While artificial systems now exceed humans in many domains—such as pattern recognition and data processing—they do so without subjective experience (Marcus, 2020). This disconnect suggests that consciousness is not strictly required for intelligence, but it raises questions about the kind of intelligence that is most valuable.
Some theorists argue that consciousness might be the next frontier in AI, opening the possibility of artificial consciousness or synthetic phenomenology (Gamez, 2018). Others suggest that consciousness is inherently biological and unlikely to be replicated (Searle, 1980). In either case, understanding the role of consciousness in human intelligence offers vital insights into both human uniqueness and the limits of AI.
Conclusion
Consciousness plays a fundamental role in human intelligence by enabling reflection, meaning, creativity, ethical reasoning, and social understanding. While unconscious processes support efficient and fast cognition, consciousness serves as an integrative, evaluative, and intentional layer of cognition. The debate continues over whether consciousness is necessary for all forms of intelligence, but its role in shaping the unique qualities of human thought is clear. As artificial intelligence continues to evolve, the study of consciousness will remain central to defining what it means to be intelligent, adaptive, and human.
Introduction
Human intelligence is frequently defined through its capacities—reasoning, learning, problem-solving, creativity, and adaptation (Sternberg, 2019). Yet, beneath these cognitive abilities lies a more profound and often enigmatic phenomenon: consciousness. Whereas intelligence can be seen in action—even in machines—consciousness remains elusive in both definition and measurement. The relationship between the two is both central and controversial. Is consciousness just an epiphenomenon arising from neural processes, or is it the core driver of human cognition? This essay critically examines the role of consciousness in human intelligence, arguing that conscious experience fundamentally enhances the cognitive and adaptive capacities that define intelligent behavior.
Defining Consciousness and Intelligence
Consciousness can be broadly defined as the subjective quality of experience—what it feels like to think, to perceive, or to feel emotion (Nagel, 1974). It includes both awareness of external stimuli and internal states, such as thoughts, memories, and sensations (Block, 1995). Intelligence, by contrast, refers to the ability to learn from experience, adapt to new environments, and use reasoning to solve problems (Gottfredson, 1997). While these definitions are traditionally separate, recent work in cognitive science suggests that consciousness enables particularly complex forms of intelligence—especially those involving self-regulation, creativity, and ethical reflection (Murray, 2020).
Historical Perspectives on Consciousness and Intelligence
The relationship between consciousness and intelligence has drawn attention from philosophers for centuries. René Descartes famously proposed cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"), indicating thought and awareness as the foundation of human existence and knowledge (Descartes, 1641/1998). Later, philosophers such as Kant emphasized the unity of consciousness as central to subjective experience and rational thought (Kant, 1781/1998). In the 20th century, cognitive science began reframing these philosophical debates in empirical terms, exploring how mechanics of perception, thought, and memory arise from neural processes.
More recently, computational theories have complicated the picture. Alan Turing (1950) proposed that intelligence could be modeled or simulated by machines, prompting a new question: whether consciousness is necessary for intelligence or whether it is merely an artifact of biological cognition. Contemporary theories vary, with some researchers suggesting that consciousness evolved solely as a byproduct of complex neural architecture, while others view it as intrinsic to advanced reasoning (Tononi, 2012).
Conscious and Unconscious Cognitive Processes
Human cognition operates on both conscious and unconscious levels. Research suggests that many complex behaviors—such as language acquisition, pattern recognition, and emotional reactions—occur without conscious awareness (Kihlstrom, 1987). Unconscious cognitive processes are highly efficient, enabling rapid responses without the need for deliberate thought. Yet consciousness offers something qualitatively different: the ability to reflect, evaluate, and intentionally modify behavior.
For example, while a person may unconsciously react to danger, consciousness allows them to reflect on the event afterward, understand its context, and alter future decisions. This reflective capacity is central to what psychologists identify as metacognition, or "thinking about thinking" (Flavell, 1979). The capacity for self-awareness, introspection, and the monitoring of one’s own cognitive processes is believed to differentiate human intelligence from the more mechanistic intelligence found in animals or machines (Dehaene, 2014).
Consciousness and Executive Function
Executive control—the ability to regulate attention, inhibit responses, plan, and make decisions—is regarded as one of the highest forms of intelligence (Miyake et al., 2000). Consciousness plays a crucial role in executive function. The prefrontal cortex, which is involved in conscious planning and decision-making, is also disproportionately developed in humans compared to other species (Fuster, 2008). Conscious awareness allows individuals to override impulses, consider long-term goals, and engage in moral reasoning (Baumeister & Masicampo, 2010).
Research in neuroscience indicates that consciousness often arises in situations where problems are novel or ill-defined, requiring flexible and creative problem-solving (Dehaene & Changeux, 2011). In contrast, routinized tasks tend to be handled unconsciously or semiconsciously. This suggests that consciousness is particularly important for adaptive intelligence—responding to new, complex, or ambiguous circumstances.
The Phenomenal Contribution to Knowledge and Meaning
Beyond its functional role, consciousness allows humans to assign meaning to experience. Phenomenology, especially as explored by philosophers such as Edmund Husserl and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, suggests that consciousness is not just a container for experience but the medium through which the world is disclosed or made meaningful (Merleau-Ponty, 1945/2012). This phenomenological view ties consciousness to both perception and cognition, framing intelligence as inseparable from lived experience.
While artificial systems can process information and perform complex computations, they lack first-person subjective experience, meaning they cannot derive meaning or value from their operations (Searle, 1980). From this perspective, consciousness enhances human intelligence by grounding it in context, emotion, and meaning, thereby enabling creativity, empathy, and moral judgment.
Consciousness and Social Intelligence
Social intelligence encompasses the capacity to understand, respond to, and navigate interpersonal relationships (Goleman, 2006). Consciousness plays a vital role in this domain through mechanisms such as empathy, theory of mind, and emotional awareness. Empathy, the ability to share and understand the feelings of others, requires a form of reflective consciousness—a recognition of both one’s own emotions and those of others (Singer, 2006).
Theory of mind, or the ability to attribute mental states to others, is similarly dependent on conscious reflection and mental modeling (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). These capabilities are essential for cooperation, communication, and social learning, dimensions of intelligence often neglected in traditional IQ-oriented frameworks. They demonstrate that consciousness is more than a cognitive facilitator; it is a relational and ethical facilitator.
Neural Correlates of Conscious Intelligence
Scientific research has sought to correlate specific neural structures with conscious cognition. The global neuronal workspace (GNW) theory, proposed by Dehaene (2014), suggests that consciousness arises from the integration of distributed neural networks into a unified processing system. According to this view, conscious states are characterized by widespread neural connectivity, enabling the coordination and integration of diverse inputs.
Similarly, the integrated information theory (IIT), developed by Tononi (2012), posits that consciousness corresponds to a system’s ability to integrate information in a unified and irreducible way. IIT links the degree of consciousness to the system’s complexity and causal power. These theories suggest that consciousness is not separate from the mechanisms of intelligence but deeply intertwined with them, emerging at the intersection of integration, complexity, and representation.
Consciousness and Creativity
Creativity—often regarded as a pinnacle of human intelligence—relies on conscious processes such as introspection, imagination, and insight. While unconscious processes contribute to creativity (e.g., through intuition or associative thinking), the conscious mind allows for evaluation, refinement, and intentional innovation (Dietrich, 2004). The creative act often involves a reflective loop between unconscious inspiration and conscious deliberation, highlighting the dynamic interplay between different modes of cognition.
Consciousness and Ethical Reasoning
Ethical reasoning represents another domain where consciousness plays a decisive role in human intelligence. Since morality involves not just rule-following but the consideration of values, intentions, and consequences, it presupposes self-awareness and the capacity for reasoning about abstract principles (Greene & Haidt, 2002). Consciousness enables individuals to reflect on personal and collective values, engage in critical self-examination, and act according to moral commitments.
As machines increase in intelligence, ethical reasoning—a deeply conscious capability—remains a uniquely human territory. While artificial intelligence can be programmed to follow ethical rules, it lacks the capacity to understand or feel moral values (Bryson, 2018).
The Future of Consciousness and Artificial Intelligence
The rise of machine intelligence has forced a critical reevaluation of whether consciousness is necessary for intelligence. While artificial systems now exceed humans in many domains—such as pattern recognition and data processing—they do so without subjective experience (Marcus, 2020). This disconnect suggests that consciousness is not strictly required for intelligence, but it raises questions about the kind of intelligence that is most valuable.
Some theorists argue that consciousness might be the next frontier in AI, opening the possibility of artificial consciousness or synthetic phenomenology (Gamez, 2018). Others suggest that consciousness is inherently biological and unlikely to be replicated (Searle, 1980). In either case, understanding the role of consciousness in human intelligence offers vital insights into both human uniqueness and the limits of AI.
Conclusion
Consciousness plays a fundamental role in human intelligence by enabling reflection, meaning, creativity, ethical reasoning, and social understanding. While unconscious processes support efficient and fast cognition, consciousness serves as an integrative, evaluative, and intentional layer of cognition. The debate continues over whether consciousness is necessary for all forms of intelligence, but its role in shaping the unique qualities of human thought is clear. As artificial intelligence continues to evolve, the study of consciousness will remain central to defining what it means to be intelligent, adaptive, and human.
References
Baumeister, R. F., & Masicampo, E. J. (2010). Conscious thought is for facilitating social and cultural interactions: How mental simulations serve the animal-culture interface. Psychological Review, 117(3), 945–971. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019393
Block, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18(2), 227–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00038188
Bryson, J. (2018). Patiency is not a virtue: AI and the design of ethical systems. Ethics and Information Technology, 20(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-018-9448-6
Dehaene, S. (2014). Consciousness and the brain: Deciphering how the brain codes our thoughts. Viking.
Dehaene, S., & Changeux, J.-P. (2011). Experimental and theoretical approaches to conscious processing. Neuron, 70(2), 200–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.018
Descartes, R. (1998). Meditations on First Philosophy (J. Cottingham, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1641)
Dietrich, A. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of creativity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11(6), 1011–1026. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196731
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
Fuster, J. M. (2008). The prefrontal cortex. Academic Press.
Gamez, D. (2018). Human and machine consciousness. Open Book Publishers.
Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. Bantam Books.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories. Intelligence, 24(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90011-8
Greene, J., & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(12), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)02011-9
Kant, I. (1998). Critique of Pure Reason (P. Guyer & A. Wood, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1781)
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 237(4821), 1445–1452. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3629249
Marcus, G. (2020). The next decade in AI: Four steps towards robust artificial intelligence. arXiv preprint. https://arxiv.org/abs/2002.06177
Merleau-Ponty, M. (2012). Phenomenology of Perception (D. A. Landes, Trans.). Routledge. (Original work published 1945)
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Murray, K. J. (2020). Mind in action: How consciousness shapes cognitive performance. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 32(4), 599–611. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01512
Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review, 83(4), 435–450. https://doi.org/10.2307/2183914
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(4), 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00076512
Searle, J. (1980). Minds, brains, and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(3), 417–457. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00005756
Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: Review of literature and implications. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(3), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022903
Sternberg, R. J. (2019). Human intelligence: The Cambridge handbook. Cambridge University Press.
Tononi, G. (2012). Integrated information theory of consciousness: An updated account. Archives Italiennes de Biologie, 150(2–3), 56–90.
Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59(236), 433–460.
Baumeister, R. F., & Masicampo, E. J. (2010). Conscious thought is for facilitating social and cultural interactions: How mental simulations serve the animal-culture interface. Psychological Review, 117(3), 945–971. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019393
Block, N. (1995). On a confusion about a function of consciousness. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18(2), 227–247. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00038188
Bryson, J. (2018). Patiency is not a virtue: AI and the design of ethical systems. Ethics and Information Technology, 20(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-018-9448-6
Dehaene, S. (2014). Consciousness and the brain: Deciphering how the brain codes our thoughts. Viking.
Dehaene, S., & Changeux, J.-P. (2011). Experimental and theoretical approaches to conscious processing. Neuron, 70(2), 200–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.018
Descartes, R. (1998). Meditations on First Philosophy (J. Cottingham, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1641)
Dietrich, A. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of creativity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11(6), 1011–1026. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196731
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
Fuster, J. M. (2008). The prefrontal cortex. Academic Press.
Gamez, D. (2018). Human and machine consciousness. Open Book Publishers.
Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. Bantam Books.
Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories. Intelligence, 24(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90011-8
Greene, J., & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(12), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)02011-9
Kant, I. (1998). Critique of Pure Reason (P. Guyer & A. Wood, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1781)
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 237(4821), 1445–1452. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3629249
Marcus, G. (2020). The next decade in AI: Four steps towards robust artificial intelligence. arXiv preprint. https://arxiv.org/abs/2002.06177
Merleau-Ponty, M. (2012). Phenomenology of Perception (D. A. Landes, Trans.). Routledge. (Original work published 1945)
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Murray, K. J. (2020). Mind in action: How consciousness shapes cognitive performance. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 32(4), 599–611. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01512
Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review, 83(4), 435–450. https://doi.org/10.2307/2183914
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(4), 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00076512
Searle, J. (1980). Minds, brains, and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(3), 417–457. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00005756
Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: Review of literature and implications. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(3), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022903
Sternberg, R. J. (2019). Human intelligence: The Cambridge handbook. Cambridge University Press.
Tononi, G. (2012). Integrated information theory of consciousness: An updated account. Archives Italiennes de Biologie, 150(2–3), 56–90.
Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59(236), 433–460.