"Rollo May stands as one of the central figures who introduced existential thought into American psychology. His work bridged European existential philosophy—particularly the writings of Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre—with humanistic psychology during the mid-twentieth century. Unlike the classical psychoanalytic model that emphasized pathology, or behaviorism that emphasized environmental conditioning, May developed an existential psychology rooted in the lived experience of being human: a being conscious of possibility, responsibility, finitude, and meaning. For May, psychological distress is not merely the result of intrapsychic conflict but arises from struggles inherent to existence itself—freedom, anxiety, love, creativity, and the search for authentic being (May, 1958, 1969).
This essay provides a comprehensive examination of Rollo May’s existential theory, focusing on its philosophical foundations, the structure of the self, the concept of anxiety, the developmental trajectory of personality, the dynamics of freedom and responsibility, love and will, and clinical implications. It concludes by situating May’s work within contemporary psychological discourse, illustrating its continued relevance in therapeutic theory and practice.
Philosophical Foundations of May’s Existential PsychologyMay’s existential theory is deeply grounded in the European existential tradition. Drawing from Kierkegaard’s understanding of anxiety as the “dizziness of freedom,” May argued that anxiety is not exclusively pathological but is a fundamental condition of being human (Kierkegaard, 1844/1954; May, 1977). He also adopted Heidegger’s concept of “being-in-the-world” (Dasein), which emphasizes that humans do not exist as detached observers but are fundamentally embedded in a world of relationships, meanings, and possibilities (Heidegger, 1927/1962).
At the same time, May differed from European existentialists in his insistence that existentialism must be integrated with empirical psychological understanding. His approach was existential-humanistic: deeply philosophical yet clinically oriented. He believed that psychotherapy should reveal the patient’s mode of existing in the world—including their values, choices, and ways of relating—rather than simply adjust symptoms (May, 1961).
May’s existentialism is also implicitly phenomenological. He emphasized the subjective, lived experience of clients, aligning with Edmund Husserl’s call to return “to the things themselves” and investigate consciousness as it is experienced (Husserl, 1913/1982). For May, the central task of psychology is to understand how human beings experience themselves as agents in a world full of meaning, threat, and potential.
Being-in-the-World: The Structure of Human ExistenceA cornerstone of May’s theory is the concept of being-in-the-world (May, 1969). He identified three modes of existence through which individuals engage with themselves and the world:
- Umwelt (the physical or biological world)
This includes the body, instincts, drives, and the natural environment. It is the world of necessity and biological survival.
- Mitwelt (the interpersonal or social world)
This reflects the world of relationships, belonging, shared meanings, and culture.
- Eigenwelt (the intrapersonal or self-reflective world)
This dimension refers to subjective self-awareness, the inner psychological world, and the meanings individuals give to their experiences.
May insisted that psychological health requires the integration and balance of all three modes. Dysfunction arises when an individual overidentifies with one mode—such as focusing exclusively on biological needs or social approval—at the expense of a holistic, authentic engagement with existence (May, 1969). This model remains influential in contemporary existential and integrative psychotherapy.
Anxiety: Normal and NeuroticPerhaps May’s most influential contribution is his elaboration of existential anxiety. In The Meaning of Anxiety (1950/1977), he argued that anxiety is an inevitable part of being human and is neither inherently destructive nor pathological.
Normal Anxiety
Normal anxiety arises when individuals confront existential realities such as freedom, death, isolation, and meaninglessness. It is proportionate to the situation, does not require repression, and can motivate constructive action (May, 1950/1977). May drew from Kierkegaard in viewing normal anxiety as a catalyst for growth—an emotional signal that new possibilities are emerging.
Neurotic Anxiety
Neurotic anxiety, by contrast, is disproportionate, repressed, and immobilizing. It arises when individuals refuse to confront existential realities, avoiding responsibility for choice and possibility. Neurotic anxiety is maintained by rigid psychological defenses meant to protect the individual from the fear of freedom and change (May, 1977).
May’s approach redefines anxiety not as a symptom to be eliminated but as a meaningful indicator of the client’s relationship with freedom, values, and authenticity. This position stands in contrast to the medicalization of anxiety, foregrounding instead the existential dimensions of human distress.
Freedom is a central theme in May’s existential psychology. Unlike Sartre, who argued for radical freedom, May emphasized freedom within limits. Human beings face constraints—biological, cultural, historical—but remain capable of choosing how they relate to these conditions (May, 1981).
Freedom
May conceptualized freedom as the capacity to envision possibilities and act upon them. Freedom involves the exercise of intentionality, which he defined as “the structure that gives meaning to experience and allows the individual to act on the world” (May, 1969, p. 244). Intentionality therefore integrates cognition, emotion, and action.
Responsibility
Responsibility is the counterpart to freedom. To be responsible is to acknowledge oneself as the source of one’s choices and actions—not simply the product of external forces. May argued that psychological disturbance often results from the avoidance of responsibility, which he associated with feelings of guilt, inauthenticity, and helplessness.
Authenticity
Authenticity arises when individuals fully engage their freedom and accept the consequences of their choices. May did not view authenticity as a static ideal but as a dynamic, evolving commitment to self-creation and meaning (May, 1958).
In therapy, helping clients claim responsibility for their choices and possibilities is crucial. Rather than offering directives, the therapist encourages the client to explore and affirm their own agency.
Rollo May’s book Love and Will (1969) remains one of his most celebrated works. Here he examined the interdependence of two primary existential capacities:
Love
May identified several forms of love:
- Sex (biological drive and erotic expression)
- Eros (creative, meaningful union)
- Philia (friendship)
- Agape (selfless care)
He argued that modern society experiences a fragmentation of love—sexuality is detached from deeper relational bonding, eroding intimacy and connection (May, 1969).
Will
Will refers to the capacity to organize oneself and commit to purposeful action. It is the internal force that supports the realization of values, choices, and projects.
The Unity of Love and Will
May maintained that love without will becomes sentimental and passive, while will without love becomes cold and domineering. Psychological maturity requires the integration of both. This emphasis on relationality and agency remains central to existential-humanistic psychotherapy.
A unique dimension of May’s theory is the concept of the daimonic, which refers to any natural impulse, drive, or potential that can take over the person. The daimonic includes both constructive and destructive forces—creativity, sexuality, anger, rage, ambition—and becomes pathological only when it dominates the personality (May, 1969, 1972).
May insisted that psychological health requires confronting and integrating the daimonic rather than repressing it. Suppression leads to disintegration and symptom formation; integration fosters creativity, vitality, and authenticity. This approach parallels Jung’s concept of the shadow but emphasizes conscious responsibility rather than archetypal determinism.
Psychopathology in Existential TermsMay rejected diagnostic categories that reduce individuals to symptoms. Instead, he conceptualized psychopathology as distortions in the mode of being-in-the-world.
Common existential disturbances include:
- Loss of connectedness (isolation, alienation)
- Loss of meaning (existential vacuum)
- Avoidance of freedom (conformity, dependence)
- Inauthenticity (self-deception, stagnation)
- Dysfunctional will (apathy, impulsivity, compulsion)
This model reframes psychological problems not as diseases but as crises of existence: failures of integration, avoidance of anxiety, or distortions of intentionality (May, 1981). Therapeutic change therefore requires restoring the client’s capacity for presence, engagement, and choice.
May’s clinical orientation emphasizes deep presence, authentic encounter, and exploration of meaning. He believed the therapist must engage the client as a whole person rather than as a diagnostically categorized mind (May, 1958).
Key therapeutic principles include:
1. Exploring the Client’s Mode of Being-in-the-World
Therapy investigates the client’s relational patterns, ways of perceiving themselves, and structures of meaning.
2. Confronting Existential Realities
Clients are encouraged to face existential givens—death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness—rather than defend against them.
3. Supporting Responsibility
Therapists help clients reclaim agency and recognize their role in shaping their lives.
4. Deepening Self-Awareness
Awareness of choices, conflicts, values, and feelings helps liberate individuals from unconscious patterns.
5. Cultivating Authenticity
Therapy fosters the courage to live in accordance with one’s values and possibilities rather than external expectations.
May also emphasized the therapeutic relationship as a real encounter between two beings whose dialogue can illuminate new possibilities for existence (May, 1961). This emphasis laid the groundwork for modern existential-humanistic psychotherapy.
Creativity and the Courage to BeAnother hallmark of May’s thought is his emphasis on creativity. In The Courage to Create (1975), he explored creativity as a fundamental expression of human freedom and self-transcendence. Creativity requires confronting the void, tolerating anxiety, and generating new forms of meaning.
May argued that courage is the foundational virtue that enables individuals to engage uncertainty and possibility. Courage is not the absence of fear but the capacity to act despite it. In this sense, existential courage is essential for authentic life and psychological healing (May, 1975).
May’s Relevance in Contemporary PsychologyMay’s existential psychology continues to influence contemporary therapeutic approaches:
1. Existential-Humanistic Psychotherapy
Directly builds on May’s exploration of meaning, freedom, and responsibility.
2. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
ACT’s focus on values, psychological flexibility, and acceptance parallels May’s emphasis on intentionality and existential freedom.
3. Logotherapy and Meaning-Centered Therapies
May’s work complements Viktor Frankl’s focus on meaning and resilience.
4. Trauma Therapy
Modern trauma approaches acknowledge the existential dimensions of shattered meaning, disconnection, and threat—domains May addressed decades earlier.
Meaning, authenticity, and adversity—key themes in May’s writing—are increasingly integrated into the study of well-being.
May’s influence endures because his work addresses enduring human struggles: the quest for meaning, the confrontation with finitude, and the challenge of authentic living.
ConclusionRollo May’s existential theory represents a profound integration of philosophy and psychology. He placed the human being—not as a machine or an instinct-driven organism but as a conscious, meaning-seeking, responsible agent—at the center of psychological inquiry. His concepts of anxiety, freedom, responsibility, the daimonic, love and will, and being-in-the-world continue to shape psychotherapy and philosophical psychology.
May’s existential psychology invites individuals to confront life courageously, embrace creativity, take responsibility for their choices, and live authentically in the face of uncertainty. Ultimately, his theory affirms the profound potential of human beings to transform their lives through awareness, meaning, and intentional action." (Source: ChatGPT 2025)
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Husserl, E. (1982). Ideas pertaining to a pure phenomenology and to a phenomenological philosophy (F. Kersten, Trans.). Springer. (Original work published 1913)
Kierkegaard, S. (1954). The concept of dread (W. Lowrie, Trans.). Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1844)
May, R. (1950/1977). The meaning of anxiety (Rev. ed.). W. W. Norton.
May, R. (1958). The origins and significance of the existential movement in psychology. In R. May, E. Angel, & H. Ellenberger (Eds.), Existence (pp. 3–36). Basic Books.
May, R. (1961). Existential psychology. Random House.
May, R. (1969). Love and will. W. W. Norton.
May, R. (1972). Power and innocence: A search for the sources of violence. W. W. Norton.
May, R. (1975). The courage to create. W. W. Norton.
May, R. (1977). Man’s search for himself (Rev. ed.). W. W. Norton.
May, R. (1981). Freedom and destiny. W. W. Norton.